898. Special Problems in Geosciences (1-6 cr, max 24)

Prereq: 12 hours geosciences

899. Masters Thesis (6-10 cr)

Prereq: Admission to masters degree program and permission of major adviser

900. Professional Development in Geosciences (1 cr) Lec 1.

Professional skills. Time management, laboratory and field safety, abstract writing, proposal writing, grantsmanship, and presentations. The philosophy and ethical conduct of science.

996. Research Other than Thesis (1-24 cr)

Prereq: Permission

999. Doctoral Dissertation (1-24 cr, max 55)

Prereq: Admission to doctoral degree program and permission of supervisory committee chair

812. Advanced Mineralogy (3-6 cr)

Prereq: 12 hrs geology including GEOL 210; CHEM 113

814. Clay Mineralogy (4 cr) Lec 3, lab 3.

Prereq: GEOL 210; CHEM 113 or equivalent

Structures and properties of common clay minerals; their formation and geologic/pedologic distribution. Generation and use of x-rays for diffraction analysis. Analysis of clays and related minerals by x-ray diffraction and electron microscopy.

*816. Isotope Geochemistry (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: GEOL 410

Behavior of stable and radiogenic isotopes in geological and cosmochemical systems. Application of isotope geochemistry to determining the age of rocks, as well as the sources of the chemical components in the rocks.

817. Organic Geochemistry (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: GEOL 410 and CHEM 251

Origin, preservation, and transport of the organic compounds found in the rock record. Applications of organic geochemistry to paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental interpretations as well as to discerning the origins of coal, oil and natural gas.

818. Chemistry of Natural Waters (NRES 819) (3 cr II) Lec 3.

Prereq: Two semesters college chemistry or equivalent, or permission

Offered even-numbered years. Principles of water chemistry and their use in precipitation, surface water, and groundwater studies. Groundwater applications used to: determine the time and course of groundwater recharge, estimate groundwater residence time, identity aquifer mineralogy, examine the degree of mixing between waters of various sources, and evaluate what types of biological and chemical processes that occurred during the water’s journey through the aquifer system.

818L. Chemistry of Natural Waters Lab (NRES 819L) (1 cr II, offered even numbered calendar years

Prereq: Two semesters college chemistry or permission

Parallel: GEOL 818/NRES 819/WATS 418. Basic laboratory techniques used to perform water analysis including various wet chemical techniques, instrument use (AA, IC, UV-Visable) and computer modeling. Techniques for sample collection and preservation, parameter estimation, and chemical analysis.

819. Applications of Remote Sensing in Agriculture and Natural Resources (AGRO 819; GEOG 819; NRES 820) (4 cr) Lec 3, lab 2.

Prereq: GEOG/NRES 818; or permission

Introduction to the practical uses of remote electromagnetic sensing in dealing with agricultural and water-resources issues.

820. Siliciclastic Sedimentology (3 cr) Lec 2, lab 3.

Prereq: GEOL 310

Depositional processes, environments of deposition, and facies models. Description, classification, and analysis of modern and ancient siliciclastic sediment and sedimentary rocks.

821. Carbonate Petrology (3 cr) Lec 2, lab 3.

Lab focuses on field, petrographic and geochemical methods. Depositional settings and processes, petrography, geochemistry, diagenesis and geological significance of modern and ancient carbonate rocks and sediments.

823. Quaternary Paleoclimatology and Paleoecology (BIOS 836) (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: 12 hours in GEOL or BIOS

Analysis and interpretation of the Quaternary period's paleoecological data. Patterns of long-term climate variation. Distribution patterns and responses of organisms and ecosystems to Quaternary environmental change.

824. Biogeochemical Cycles (BIOS 838) (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: CHEM 109 or 113; 12 hrs geology or biological sciences

Chemical cycling at or near the earth’s surface. Interactions among the atmosphere, biosphere, geosphere, and hydrosphere. Modern processes, the geological record, and human impacts on elemental cycles.

*825. Geostatistics (NRES *825) (3 cr I)

Prereq: MATH 106 and STAT 218

Offered fall semester of odd-numbered calendar years. Practical methods for solving spatial interpolation and related estimation problems with emphasis on geostatistical methods. Introduction to applied statistical simulation and prediction in geology, hydrogeology and environmental studies.

828. Stratigraphic Architecture and Sequence Stratigraphy (3 cr) Lec 2, lab 3.

Prereq: GEOL 310

Analysis of stratigraphic stacking patterns in sedimentary basins and sequence stratigraphic methods.

830. Quantitative Methods in Paleontology (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: GEOL 310

Numerical and statistical analysis of paleontological data including biometry, synecology and quantitative biostratigraphy.

831. Micropaleontology (3 cr) Lec 2, lab 3.

Prereq: GEOL 310

Morphology, classification, ecology, and geological application of common fossil and extant marine, brackish, and freshwater microfossils.

835. Vertebrate Paleontology (3 cr) Lec 2, lab 3.

Survey of the evolution of the vertebrates, including examination of the geological and biological factors that influence the pattern of evolution, and laboratory study of fossil materials of the major vertebrate groups.

836. Mammalian Paleontology (2 cr) Lec 2.

Prereq: Permission

Survey of Mesozoic and Cenozoic mammalian history, with emphasis on integration of geological and biological data on pattern and process in mammalian evolution.

839. Marine Ecology and Paleoecology (BIOS 861) (2 cr) Lec 2.

Prereq: BIOS/NRES 220

Includes several field trips. Introduction to the fundamentals of marine ecology and application to paleoecology.

839L. Marine Ecology and Paleoecology Laboratory (BIOS 861L) (1 cr) Lab 3.

Prereq: Parallel GEOL 439/839

Lab includes several field trips.

840. Tectonics (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: GEOL 340 or permission

Theory of plate tectonics; tectonic controls on rock assemblages; interpretation of regional structure and tectonic history; origin and tectonic evolution of terrestrial planets.

842. Environmental Geophysics I (4 cr) Lec 3, lab 3.

Prereq: MATH 107; PHYS 211; GEOL 101 or 106; or equivalent or permission

Introduction to the principles of seismic, ground-penetrating radar, and bore-hole geophysical methods and their application to groundwater, engineering, environmental, and archaeological investigations.

843. Environmental Geophysics II (4 cr) Lec 3, lab 3.

Prereq: MATH 107; PHYS 211; GEOL 101 or 106; or equivalent or permission

Introduction to principles of magnetic, electromagnetic, resistivity, and gravity methods and their application to ground water, engineering, environmental, and archaeological investigations.

846. Palynology (3 cr) Lec, lab.

Prereq: 12 hours GEOS

GEOL 846 lab focuses on techniques for pollen recovery from modern and ancient materials.

Pollen and spore morphology, taxonomy, and pollination ecology as a basic tool for geologists, biologists, and archaeologists interested in environmental reconstruction. Techniques of environmental reconstruction through pollen analysis. Aspects of medical and forensic palynology.

850. Surficial Processes and Landscape Evolution (3 cr) Lec 2, lab 3.

Prereq: GEOL 310 or permission

Field trip(s). Fluvial, glacial, eolian, and coastal processes and landforms. Roles of tectonics, climate, and climate change in landscape evolution. Lab stresses description and interpretation of landforms from remotely-sensed, cartographic, and field data.

857. Ecosystem Ecology (BIOS 857) (4 cr) Lec 3, rct 1.

Prereq: BIOS 207 or 220

Processes controlling the cycling of energy and elements in ecosystems and how both plant and animal species influence this. Human influenced global and local change that alter these cycles and ecosystem functioning.

861. Soil Physics (AGRO 861; NRES 861; SOIL 461; WATS 461) (3 cr I) Lec 3.

Prereq: AGRO/SOIL 153, PHYS 141 or equivalent, one semester of calculus

Recommended: Parallel enrollment in AGRO/NRES 858. Principles of soil physics. Movement of water, air, heat and solutes in soils. Water retention and movement, including infiltration and field water regime. Movement of chemicals in soils.

865. Soil Geomorphology and Paleopedology (NRES 865) (3 cr) Lec, lab.

Prereq: GEOL 850 and NRES 877, or permission

Two field trips required. Soils and paleosols as evidence in reconstructing landscape evolution and paleoenvironments. Role of paleosols in stratigraphy.

*869. Regional Field Geology (1 cr) Fld.

Prereq: 12 hrs GEOL including GEOL 103

Weekend field trips. Field investigation of classic areas of Midcontinent Geology, emphasizing principles of stratigraphy, geomorphology, sedimentology, and paleontology.

870. Field Techniques in Hydrogeology (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: GEOL 888 or permission

Combined lectures, laboratory, assigned problems, full day field trips, and seminars. Basic techniques, including field procedures, instruments, and software for data interpretation and characterization of groundwater flow and contaminant transport.

872. Water in Geosciences (3 cr II)

Prereq: MATH 106 and 107; PHYS 141; and one of the following: GEOL 101 or 106 or METR 200

Quantitative approach to water in geological media, earth surface and atmosphere. Analysis of physical processes involved in groundwater-surface-atmosphere interactions.

875. Water Quality Strategy (AGRO 875; CIVE 875; CRPL 875; MSYM 875; NRES 875; POLS 875; SOCI 875; SOIL 475; WATS 475) (3 cr II) Lec 3.

Prereq: Permission

Holistic approach to the selection and analysis of planning strategies for protecting water quality from nonpoint sources of contamination. Introduction to the use of methods of analyzing the impact of strategies on whole systems and subsystem for selecting strategies; and for evaluating present strategies.

880. Economic Geology of the Metals (2 cr) Lec 2, lab 2.

Prereq: 12 hrs geology including GEOL 210, 340; CHEM 114, 116

Occurrence and utilization of the metallic ores. Elementary theory of ore genesis.

884. Water Resources Seminar (AGRO 884; GEOG 884; NRES 884; WATS 484) (1 cr II)

Prereq: Permission

Seminar on current water resources research and issues in Nebraska and the region.

885. Fossil Fuel Geology and Exploration (3 cr) Lec 2, lab 3.

Prereq: 12 hours geology

Geology of coal, oil and gas, and methods of exploration for those resources.

888. Groundwater Geology (NRES 888) (3 cr)

Prereq: GEOL 100-level course; MATH 106 or equivalent

Occurrence, movement and development of water in the geologic environment.

*889. Hydrogeology (NRES *887) (3 cr)

Prereq: GEOL 888/NRES 488 and MATH 208

Principles of flow through porous media with emphasis on basic classical solutions, flow-net analysis, and elementary modern numerical solutions that aid in the analysis and development of groundwater supplies.

895. Economic and Exploration Geography (2 cr, max 6) Lec 2.

Prereq: GEOL 310 and 320; or equivalent

Recommended parallel: a GEOL course as indicated by the instructor and to vary with course content. Content will vary on a 3-year rotation. Combined lectures, seminars, weekend short courses, and field trips. Field trips are required and supported by alumni endowment. Field trips may be scheduled during semester breaks. E.F. Schramm Course in Economic Geology. Fossil fuel geology and exploration.

917. Environmental Isotope Hydrology (NRES 917) (3 cr)

Prereq: NRES 819 or equivalent or permission

Theory and use of stable, radiogenic and radioactive isotopes in hydrologic studies. Abundance and variation of the stable isotopes of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, sulphur, chlorine, nitrogen, and strontium. Application of the isotopes to determine water origin, movement, geochemical history, recharge age and residence time, and to delineate contaminant sources and solute migration.

918. Seminar in Geochemistry (1-2 cr)

919. Seminar in Mineralogy (1-6 cr, max 6)

920. Seminar in Stratigraphy (1-2 cr)

See also GEOL 953.

922. Seminar in Sedimentary Environments (1-2 cr)

925. Seminar in Sedimentology (1-2 cr)

926. Marine Geology and Paleoceanography (3 cr) Lec 3.

Geology of the oceanic realm, formation of oceanic crust, circulation, geochemistry, pelagic sediments and their diagensis, correlation, and oceanic history.

929. Mesozoic and Cenozoic Stratigraphy (3 cr) Lec 3.

Application of stratigraphic principles and methods to the solution of Mesozoic and Cenozoic problems.

931. Taphonomy (2 cr) Lec 1, lab 3.

Processes in fossil preservation and how they affect information in the fossil record of vertebrates.

934. Site Analysis in Vertebrate Paleontology (2 cr) Lec 2.

Integrated approach to the excavation and collection of fossil vertebrate sites in a global framework, with consideration of tectonic, depositional, and taphonomic factors in interpretation of fossil vertebrate concentrations.

935. Cenozoic Vertebrate Paleoecology (2 cr) Lec 1, lab 1.

Prereq: GEOL 836

Terrestrial vertebrate history during the Cenozoic Era with emphasis on the fossil record of Great Plains mammalian communities within the last fifteen million years.

936. Siliceous Phytoplankton Paleontology (4 cr) Lec 3, lab 3.

Biostratigraphy, paleoecology, and paleobiogeography of fossil diatoms, silicoflagellates and ebridians.

937. Mesozoic Calcareous Nannofossil Paleontology (4 cr) Lec 3, lab 3.

Biostratigraphy, paleoecology, and paleobiogeography of Mesozoic calcareous nannofossils.

938. Cenozoic Calcareous Microfossil Paleontology (4 cr) Lec 3, lab 3.

Biostratigraphy, paleoecology, and paleobiogeography of Cenozoic calcareous nannofossils.

939. Seminar in Paleontology (1-2 cr)

940. Advanced Structural Geology (1-24 cr)

941. Advanced Tectonics (3 cr)

Prereq: GEOL 840 or permission

Tectonics and regional structure of selected mountain belts; Precambrian Tectonics; tectonics and resources.

945. Seminar in Structural Geology and Tectonics (1-2 cr)

953. Glacial Geology (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: GEOL 850 or permission

Deposits made by the continental ice sheets of the Pleistocene and of the environments that existed around them. Lab includes interpretation of topographic maps, air photos, soil maps, and field studies.

955. Seminar in Geomorphology (2-3 cr)

956. Seminar in Quaternary Geology (1-2 cr)

See also GEOL 881, 827.

985. Solute Movement in Soils (AGEN 955; AGRO 955; CIVE 955) (3 cr II) Lec 3.

Prereq: MATH 208; AGRO 861 or GEOL 888 or MSYM 852 or CIVE 858

Knowledge of a programming language. MATH 821 recommended. Offered even-numbered calendar years.

Examination of the theory and experimental evidence available to characterize the movement of chemicals in soil. Both saturated and unsaturated flow conditions examined. Initial presentation of basic theoretical concepts. Remainder of class a discussion of the literature.

986. Contaminant Hydrogeology (3 cr)

Prereq: GEOL 888, MATH 208 or equivalent, or permission

Occurrence, behavior and remediation of contamination in geological media. Fundamentals of physical, mathematical, chemical, and engineering processes affecting movement of contaminants in the hydrogeological environment and their applications. Teamwork, projects, seminar presentations, field trips and invited lectures.

987. Seminar in Hydrogeology (1-2 cr)

988. Introduction to Groundwater Modeling (3 cr)

Prereq: GEOL *889, MATH 208 or equivalent, programming language, or permission

Application of fundamentals of modeling techniques (analytical, semi-analytical, finite-difference and finite elements) to the solution of hydrogeological problems. Emphasis on development of model concepts for specific groundwater flow and transport conditions, selection of solution methods, including computer software and hardware, performance of computer modeling, and interpretation of results.

996. Research Other Than Thesis (1-24 cr)

Prereq: Permission

808. Microclimate: The Biological Environment (AGRO 808; GEOG 808; HORT 808; NRES 808; WATS 408) (3 cr I)

Prereq: MATH 106 or equivalent; 5 hrs physics; or permission

Physical factors that create the biological environment. Radiation and energy balances of earth’s surfaces, terrestrial and marine. Temperature, humidity and wind regimes near the surface. Control of the physical environment through irrigation, windbreaks, frost protection, manipulation of light and radiation. Applications to air pollution research. Instruments for measuring environmental conditions and remote sensing of the environment.

*811. Dynamic Meteorology I (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: CSCE 150E; MATH 208/208H; METR 205; PHYS 211/211H

Equations of thermodynamics, momentum, and continuity are derived and applied to atmospheric motion. Energy conservation, flows, and conversions.

*812. Dynamic Meteorology II (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: CSCE 150E; MATH 221/821; METR 311; PHYS 211/211H

Applications of the principles of dynamic meteorology to the problems of forecasting and meteorological problems.

815. General Circulation of the Atmosphere (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: MATH 106/108H; METR 205 and 475/875; PHYS 211 or 211H, PHYS 221; and permission

Development of the atmospheric circulation regimes, from planetary scale (e.g., the planetary waves) to synoptic scale (e.g., the cyclones and anticyclones) and mesoscale, their seasonal variations, and their roles in horizontal and vertical energy and water transports and budgets in the Earth system.

*823. Physical Meteorology (4 cr) Lec 4.

Prereq: CSCE 150E; METR 205; PHYS 212/212H

Physical principles that provide the foundation for meteorology. Absorption, scattering, and transmission of radiation in the atmosphere, cloud physics, precipitation process, atmospheric optics, atmospheric electricity, and lightning.

828. Air Pollution (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: 6 hrs METR; CHEM 109

Basic processes (e.g., emission, transport, first-order chemical reaction, and deposition) associated with air pollution and their combination with meteorology for air quality forecasting. Environmental topics: acid rain; smog; air pollution; and ozone hole; greenhouse gases; aerosols; long-range transport; civic regulations and international treaties on air pollution; and climate change.

*841. Synoptic Meteorology (4 cr) Lec 3, lab 2.

Prereq: METR 205

Dynamic and thermodynamic concepts and principles applied to synoptic-scale weather forecasting. Dynamics, energetics, structure, evolution, and motion of extra-tropical cyclones. Meteorological communications, interpretation and analysis of weather maps, and thermodynamic diagrams.

842. Advanced Synoptic Meteorology-Climatology (4 cr) Lec 3, lab 1.

Prereq: METR 341

Analysis and forecasting of subsynoptic-scale weather systems. Convection, thunderstorm models, severe local storm forecasting techniques, mesoscale convective complexes, vertical cross-sections, isentropic analysis, and weather radar.

843. Severe Storms Meteorology-Climatology (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: METR 205

Dynamics of various types of severe weather (blizzards, flash floods, lightning, thunderstorms, and winter and summer tornado outbreaks). Interpretation of the numerical and statistical models utilized to forecast these phenomena. Synoptic case studies of severe weather occurrences. Recent research on severe weather.

850. Climate and Society (AGRO 850; GEOG 850; NRES 852) (3 cr)

Prereq: METR 200 or 351 or equivalent, or permission

Offered spring semester of even-numbered calendar years. Identify the impact of climate and extreme climatic events on society and societal responses to those events. Global in scope and interdisciplinary.

854. Statistical Analysis of Atmosphere Data (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: 6 hrs METR; MATH 107/107H; and permission

Application of univariate statistics, hypothesis testing, statistical forecasting, forecast verification, time-series analysis, principal component analysis, and cluster and/or multivariate analysis to atmospheric data for different applications in the atmospheric sciences (from short-term weather forecast to long-term climate prediction).

863. Radar Meteorology (3 cr I, II) Lec 3.

Prereq: METR 323

The fundamental principles of weather radars and the basic application of these principles.

864. Satellite Meteorology (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: METR 205

Concepts and principles related to meteorological observations from satellites. Applications for weather analysis and forecasting.

865. Satellite Remote Sensing of Atmosphere (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: METR 323

Principles of atmospheric radiation and techniques for satellite image processing. Application of data calibration, image registration and enhancement, noise filtering and multi-spectral classification of satellite imageries. Survey of various sensors used for monitoring different atmospheric processes and constituents.

869. Bio-Atmospheric Instrumentation (AGRO 869; GEOG 869; HORT 807; MSYM 869; NRES 869) (3 cr I)

Prereq: MATH 106 and 4 hrs physics

Offered fall semester of odd-numbered calendar years. Discussion and practical application of principles and practices of measuring meteorological and related variables near the earth’s surface including temperature, humidity, precipitation, pressure, radiation and wind. Performance characteristics of sensors and modern data collection methods discussed and evaluated.

870. The Climate System: Analysis and Prediction (3 cr) Lec 3.

Maintenance of the climate system and climate change over time. Global budgets of energy, water, and momentum and their balance. Development of simple, physically-based models of climate and of climate change.

875. Physical Climatology (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: METR 205

Global energy and water balance regimes of the earth and its atmosphere. Utilization of physical laws to reveal causes and effects of interrelationships in the climatic system.

878. Regional Climatology (NRES 878) (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: METR 370

Regional differentiation of the climates of the earth on both a descriptive and dynamic basis. The chief systems of climatic classification.

879. Hydroclimatology (NRES 879) (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: NRES 208 or METR 200 or 370; or permission.

NRES 879 is offered fall semester of even-numbered calendar years.

Study of the interaction between earth’s climate and the hydrologic cycle, with an emphasis on energy and water fluxes at the land-atmosphere interface. Processes studied include atmospheric moisture transport, precipitation, evaporation, snowmelt, and runoff. Impacts of climate variability and change on the hydrologic cycle are also examined.

*880. Theory of Climate (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: MATH 221/821 or MATH 221H; PHYS 142 or equivalent

Foundation and maintenance of earth’s climate system and its variation over time. Climate modeling.

883. Global Climate Change (NRES 867) (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: MATH 106/106B/108H; 5 hrs PHYS; METR 475/875

METR 883 is offered fall semester of even-numbered calendar years.

Elements of the climate systems, El Niño and/or La Niña cycle and monsoons, and natural variability of climate on inter-annual and inter-decadal scales. Paleo-climate and future climate. Develop climate change scenarios and climate change impacts on natural resources and the environment.

887. Earth’s Climate: Past, Present, Future (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: 6 hrs METR or 6 hrs GEOL

How the Earth’s climate has varied and the forcing mechanisms related to those changes. Themes that reappear through Earth’s climate history and into the future; causes of climate change; the natural response times of the multiple components; and the role of green house gases within the climate system at differing time scales.

895. Internship in Meteorology-Climatology (1-6 cr, max 6) Fld.

Prereq: Permission

Pass/No Pass only. Application of meteorology-climatology learning with on-the-job training.

898. Special Topics in Meteorology-Climatology (1-24 cr, max 24)

Prereq: Permission

903. Seminar in Meteorology and Climatology (3 cr) Lec 3.

Topic varies.

907. Agricultural Climatology (AGRO 907; HORT 907; NRES 907) (3 cr II) Lec 2, lab 2.

Prereq: NRES 808; STAT 801 or equivalent

Offered spring semester of odd-numbered calendar years. Analysis and use of climatological data as applied to agricultural activities and the use of climatological information to assist in decision making.

908. Solar Radiation Interactions at the Earth’s Surface (AGRO 908; HORT 908; NRES 908) (3 cr II)

Prereq: MATH 208; NRES 808 or equivalent or permission

Offered spring semester of even-numbered calendar years. Quantitative study of radiative transfer to the earth’s surface and subsequent interactions of radiation with vegetative components and underlying surfaces. Applications of canopy radiative modeling and remote sensing techniques, particularly in understanding land-surface processes, are discussed.

924. Atmospheric Radiative Transfer (3 cr, max) Lec 3.

Prereq: METR 423/823; MATH 221/221H/821; and permission

Theory of scattering by atmospheric particles (e.g., clouds, aerosols, and molecules), atmospheric radiative transfer equations, and techniques for solving these equations. Atmospheric transfer of both solar and terrestrial radiation. Numerical experiments with radiative transfer models and comparison with observations.

943. Dynamics of Severe Convective Storms (3 cr) Lec 3.

Prereq: METR 411/811 and 412/812, or equivalent

Advanced concepts related to severe convective storms. Tornado-genesis, super-cell formation, rotation, movement, morphology, quasi-linear convective systems, deep convective initiation, hail, mesoscale convective systems, and RKW (Rotunno-Klemp-Weisman) theory.

987. Seminar in Climatic Change (3 cr) Lec 3.

Climates of the past emphasizing the Quaternary period. Paleogeographic changes in response to climatic fluctuations. Techniques for recording and reconstructing past climatic variations. Modeling the changing climate. Climatic changes and human affairs.